It is significant to note that social movements play a vital part in the process by which a social problem is brought to public attention. Social movements throw light on various social problems which have been in existence since decades and centuries. Modern India has also witnessed a number of social movements ever since the 18th century. Social movements have taken place here in the religious, political, economic, educational, environmental and other fields. Some of these movements had only a limited range while a few others have had a very wide range of influence. Here is an attempt to introduce some such movements that took place in India especially during the 19th and 20th centuries.

1. Definition, Concept and Types of Social Movements

"Social Movement" represents a social phenomenon that assumes great importance in the study of not only collective behaviour but also of social change. Sociologists have started evincing great interest in studying its role not only in bringing about changes in society but also in resisting them. A social movement is a type of collective behaviour that could be a lasting one and at the same time, an influential one. It is, indeed, "a generator of social change".

Social movements of various types have been taking place in most of the societies of the modern world. In fact, they have become a part and parcel of the modern democratic societies. We hear of various types of social movements launched for one or the other purpose. There are movements to demand more and more reservation for the SCs and STs and other backward classes and there are counter movements demanding its cancellation or at least the status quo. There are movements to "save environment", to "save wild life" and to "save world peace". There are movements for and against the construction of Sri Ram Temple at the disputed place of Ayodhya. There are Fascist Movements, Communist Movements, Naxalite Movements, Tribal Movements, Peasants' Movements, Women's Movements, Youth Movements, Labor Movements, Civil Rights Movements, Human Rights Movements, Afforestaton Movements, and so on. What then do we mean by social movements?

Definition of Social Movement

1. A social movement is formally defined as "a collective acting with some continuity to promote or resist change in the society or group of which it is a part" - Turner and Killian.

2. "A social movement is a collective effort to promote or resist change" - Horton and Hunt.

Characteristics of Social Movements

M.S.A. Rao, one of the prominent Indian sociologists, has made an analysis of the nature of social movements in the book "Social Movements in India ", edited by him. According to him, social movement includes two characteristics about which there is considerable agreement among the sociologists. They are as follows.

Collective Action. Social movement undoubtedly involves collective action. However, this collective action, takes the form of movement only when it is sustained for a long time. This collective action need not be formally organised. It could be an informal attempt also. But it should be able to create an interest and awakening in a relatively large number of people.

Oriented Towards Social Change. A social movement is generally oriented towards bringing about social change. This change could either be partial or total. Though the movement is aimed at bringing about a change in the values, norms, ideologies of the existing system, efforts are also made by some other forces to resist the changes and to maintain the status quo. As M.S.A. Rao points out, though sociologists are almost agreeable on the above mentioned two characteristics of social movement; they differ a lot regarding other criteria - such as the presence of an ideology, method of organisation, and the nature of consequence.

Ideology Behind the Movement- An important component of social movement the distinguishes it from the general category of collective mobilisation, is the presence of an ideology Example: A student strike involves collective mobilisation and is oriented towards change. But is the absence of an ideology a student strike becomes an isolated event and not a movement

Organisational Frame Work- As Paul Wilkinson has pointed out, a social movement requires a minimum of organisational framework to achieve success or at least to maintain the tempo of the movement.

The Techniques and Results- A social movement may adopt its own technique or me to achieve its goal. There is no certainty regarding it. It may follow peaceful or conflicting, violent or non-violent, compulsive or persuasive, democratic or undemocratic means or methods to reach its goal

Types of Social Movements

Sociologists hence classified social movements into different types on the basis of their bjectives. Wallace and Wallace, Horton and Hunt, M.S.A. Rao and others, have mentioned of three main types of movements: (i) reform movements, (ii) revolutionary movements, and (iii) revivalist movements.

1. Reform Movements -Reform movements are satisfied with the existing social order but believe that certain reforms are necessary in some specific areas. The reformers Endeavour to change elements of the system as it currently stands. Example, Save the Environment Movement, the Arya Samaj Movement, Brahmo Samaj Movement, Sri Ramakrishna Mission, etc.

2. Revolutionary Movements- The revolutionary movements deny that the system will even work. These movements are deeply dissatisfied with the social order and work for radical change. They advocate replacing the entire existing structure. Their objective is the reorganization of society in accordance with their own ideological blueprint. Revolutionary movements generally prefer not to use violence although some of them do resort to violence. Example: the Protestant Reformation Movement, the Socialist Movement, and so on.

3. Reactionary or Revivalist Movement-Some movements are known as reactionary or regressive movements. These aim at "putting die clock back." Their members view certain social changes with suspicion and distaste and try to reverse the current trends. They highlight the importance and greatness of traditional values, ideologies and institutional arrangements. They strongly criticise the fast moving changes of the present. Example: the, the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Khadi and Gramodyog Movement of Gandhiji, and the like.

In addition to the above mentioned three main types of movements, we can add two other types of movements as suggested by Horton and Hunt.

4. Resistance Movements- These movements are formed to resist a change that is already taking place in society. Good number of contemporary resistance movements expresses their dismay at the directions in which our nation has seen moving. Example: Anit-Abortion Movement, Anti-Hindi Movement, Anti-Reservation Movement, the Swadeshi Movement against the movement towards Economic Liberalisation, the Movement towards Indian sing Indian Education, etc.

5. Utopian Movements-These are attempts to take the society or at least a section of it towards a state of perfection. ~These are loosely structured collectivities that envision a radically changed and blissful state, ether on a large scale at some time in the future or on a smaller scale in the present. The Utopian Meal and the means of it are often vague, but many Utopian movements have quite specific programmes for social change." Example: the "Hare Krishna Movement" of the seventies.

REFORM MOVEMENTS

During the 18th century, and afterwards, a great change swept over the land of India. The Hindu mind that had been moulded for centuries by a fixed set of religious ideas and social conventions was exposed to new ideas and new ways of thinking. it was the result of the western impact on India. As a result of that impact, the rigid rituals in religion and traditional beliefs started losing their influence on the masses. The western contact opened the Hindu mind to the social evils and set in motion a social reform of its time honored institutions in the new light. Several traditional beliefs and practices dysfunctional to society were discarded and many new customs, practices, institutions and values were adopted.

Indians who came under the influence of the new values and practices became aware of many of the existing social evils like child marriage etc. this awareness led to a revolt against tradition and that was the first step towards reforms in social, religious and political spheres of life. this awareness led to the launching of a series of social reform movements right from raja ram mohan roy down to mahatma gandhiji. raja ram mohan roy's "brahmo samaj", swami dayananda saraswathi's "arya samaj", swami vivekananda's "sri ramakrishna mission", and such other movements not only served to eradicate some of the social evils but also to enlighten people regarding modern values.

1. The brahmo samaj - raja ram mohan roy [1772-1833] of bengal, often known as the "first modern man of india", was the first socio-religious reformer of the 19th century. he was the first to see the evils that had crept into the hindu society on account of orthodox religious practices and superstitious beliefs. he was also the first to challenge the existing religious beliefs and practices of the day. he pointed out that they were not according to the basic scriptures of the hindu dharma.

The birth of brahmo samaj: Ram Mohan Roy showed that polytheism was opposed to the teaching of the vedas. he attempted at the emancipation of the indian society from the arbitrary social regulations. he advocated innumerable social reforms like - abolition of "sati", etc. he wrote a number of books inspired by the western ideals, values and models.

Crusade against inequalities : the brahmo samaj launched a crusade against the inequalities of the caste system. he dubbed caste as inhuman and undemocratic. the samaj undr the leadership of ram mohan roy even condemned the worship of images, the practices of "sati' and polygamy, and the abuses of caste system.

Brahmo Sam aj : The First Attempt to Reform the Hindu Society in Modern India : The Samaj is the first organised religious institution in modern India to reform the Hindu way of life. Hindu social system and religious beliefs. The Samaj began to attract many adherents from the middle class. By 1829, Raja Ram and his supporters were able to buy a house for the new organisation, that is. Brahmo Samaj. In the very same year, his efforts resulted in the abolition of Sati.

2, PRARTHANA SAMAJ - 1867

"Prarthana Samaj" represents one of the Indian reform movements that took place in the 19th century. The Brahmo Samaj entered Maharashtra as early as in 1849 and obtained some initial support especially in Bombay.

The Samaj's Concentration on Social Reforms : The Prarthana Samaj devoted attention to social reform. It aimed at reforming the Hindu religious thought and practice in the light of modern knowledge. It preached the worship of one God and tried to free religion from the hold of caste and priestly domination. It encouraged interdining and intermarriage among different castes.

3. ARYA SAMAJ-1875

Dayananda Saraswathi [1824-1883] was another religious leader who stood for the reformation of the Hindu society and the Hindu religion.

Vedas : The Source of Inspiration of the Movement: Dayananda Saraswathi drew inspiration from the Vedas which he regarded as infallible. Since the Vedas are believed to have originated from the divine inspiration, they represent an inexhaustible reservoir of all knowledge.

4. SRI RAMAKRISHNA MISSION - 1897

An outstanding movement which stood for religious reformation is the "Sri Ramakrishna Mission" of Calcutta. Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa [1834-86] and his great disciple Swami Vivekananda [1863-1902] launched this movement which has now assumed the form of an institution.

Message of Sri Ramakrishna: Unity of God - Equality of Religions and Service to Mankind: Sri Ramakrishna Mission was totally an indigenous movement due to the personality of a simple and almost illiterate saint, Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. He preached the unity of God and equality of religions and taught the philosophy of the Upanishads in universal language and laid particular emphasis on social service.

Attempts to Stop the Advance of Western Materialism : Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa wanted "to protect the country from the materialisation of the West. He never advocated violent change, but gradual economic and social upliftment of the people leading to spiritual reform. He actually stimulated many local socio-religious organisations and movements like the Arya Samaj. Radhaswami Satsang, Bharath Dharma, etc. which played a remarkable role in bringing about national awakening.

Vivekananda Heralds a Movement of Liberal Ideas: Vivekananda condemned caste inequalities, exploitation of lower castes and women. He stressed on education, self reliance and freedom of women. He urged the people to imbibe the spirit of liberty, equality and free thinking.

Vivekananda, like his Guru, was also a great humanist. Shocked by the poverty, misery and sufferings of the common people of the country, he wrote : "The only God in whom I believe, the sum total of all souls, and above all, my God the wicked, my God the afflicted, my God the poor of all races. " To the educated Indians, he said: "So long as the millions live in hunger and ignorance, I hold every man a traitor, who having been educated at their expense, pays not the least heed to them."

B. BACKWARD CLASSES MOVEMENT

The Backward Classes / Castes Movement started in the early part of the 20th century. The backward classes or castes represent the underprivileged sections of the Indian society. The concept of "Backward Castes/Classes Movement" virtually refers to the movement launched by the backward castes / classes to fight against caste inequalities, Brahmin domination, socio-economic-religious discrimination and deprivation. The movement aims at removing or lessening the caste inequalities, promoting the economic advancement of the poor, the deprived and the low castes, and to obtain for them equal educational facilities and political opportunities. The backward classes movement which first took place during the British rule in Maharashtra [in 1860 and 1870s] later on spread to various south Indian states such as Kerala, Andhra and Karnataka, still continues with different dimensions.

Main Goals of Backward Classes Movement

It can be stated that the backward classes movement started with some goals among which the following may be noted:

1. Backward classes movement is a movement launched by the lower sections of the Indian population against the discrimination of various kinds - social, political, religious, economic, educational, etc.

3. It is a movement aimed at securing greater self-respect, social recognition, prestige and status.

5. These movements are basically movements aimed at finding the avenues of social mobility.

7. These movements have been organised with the intention of unifying various non-Brahmin castes.

9. Backward classes movements are launched with the intention of promoting the welfare and well-being of the non-Brahmin lower castes.

In their attempts to achieve the above mentioned goals, they have often turned out to be "adaptive movements, that is, movements oriented to cultural revolts and counter-cultura. movements."

Nature and Characteristics of Backward Classes Movement

Backward Classes Movement started in India in the early part of 20th century. According to M.N. Srinivas, the term "backward classes movement" must be understood in the Indian social context as a kind of struggle waged by the lower castes against the supremacy of the Brahmins. It also represents concerted effort on the part of the lower castes to improve their social, economic, educational and political statuses. As Srinivas has pointed out the lower castes realised that mere Sanskritisation was not enough to attain social mobility. They became more determined to obtain Western education in order to qualify themselves for the new jobs in administration and the new professions like law, medicine, engineering, etc. Thus higher caste dominance in education and in the new occupations provided the conditions for the backward classes movement. M.N. Srinivas has also pointed out that such a movement was inevitable in India where only one caste, the Brahmins, enjoyed preponderance in higher education, in professions, and government employment.

1. A Caste Based Movement : The main characteristic feature of the backward classes movement is that it is caste based. In the Indian context, "backward classes" form an aggregate of "closed" status groups or castes. Caste associations came into existence in different parts of the country to press their claims for new designations and occupations.

2. Backward Classes Movement is also a Political Movement : The backward classes movement right from its inception has been political in nature. The partition of Bengal in 1905 led to the intensification of nationalism, and also to the rise of communalism, casteism, linguism and regionalism. The Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909 conceded separate electorates to Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans. Now, the lower castes also demanded separate electorate. Dr. Ambedkar fought for it. This made the backward classes movement to become political. In South India, in Madras Presidency the Justice Party was formed to protect the interests of the non-Brahmins "dominant castes." It started newspapers in English and other languages to educate and to represent the case of the non-Brahmins. Similarly, many periodicals were started by caste organisations in different parts of India.

3. Backward Classes Movement Originated in South India : For various reasons, the backward classes movement not only originated in South India but also had become very stronger. It also assumed the character of a "Dravidian movement" and became - "anti-north Indian", "anti-Hindi", "anti-Aryan", "anti-Sanskrit", "anti-Brahmin" movement. In course of time, however, the movement was spread to North India also and even to the states like Bengal where the caste consciousness was found to be quite less.

4. Backward Classes Movement was not a "Mass Movement": Backward classes movement was not a popular movement for a very long time. People belonging to the lower castes though were often exploited and suppressed by the Brahmins, were not ready to oppose the hegemony of the Brahmins openly. Hence, it had not become a mass movement.

Factors Contributing to the Backward Classes Movement

The backward classes’ movement which started as a non-Brahmin movement, ultimately degenerated into anti-Brahmin movement. This movement is the cumulative effect of several factors among which the following may be noted.

1. The Dual Effect of the Politics Pursued by the British Government

The growth of the backward classes’ movement is in no small measure due to the politics pursued by the British Government. The advent of the British rule in India had led to many far-reaching consequences. The consolidation of the political regime by the British, introduction of Western-oriented educational system, opening of vast occupational and professional opportunities, produced lot of structural disturbances in the caste structure. The British rule in a way, caused two contradictory effects on the Hindu society.

(a) British Rule Further Widened the Gap Between the Brahmins and Non-Brahmins :

The British rule led to an increase in the structural distance between the Brahmins and the rest of the and political power. In most parts of the country Brahmins were the first to benefit from the Western education. They also increased their representation in the professional and administrative and managerial services especially in the first quarter of the 20th century. There was preponderance of castes in the Hindu society. It led to an increase in the disparities in the distribution of economic the Brahmins among the literates and particularly the English knowing population in the Madras Presidency and the then princely state of Mysore

(b) British Support to Non-Brahmin Movement to Curb Brahmin-led Revolutionary Activities: The British, for their own benefit started supporting the non-Brahmin movement. Though the British used to favour the Brahmins in the beginning, they later realised that Brahmins were potentially dangerous. During the first phase of the 20th century, a section of the British in India believed the Brahmin to be their primary enemy.

2. Role of Census System

The desire for more mobility among the backward castes came from the census operations also. The caste "sabhas" represented to the census authorities the demand of individual castes to belong to a particular "varna" and not to a lower one. For example, the two peasant castes of Tamil Nadu, the Vellalas and Padaiyachis wanted to be recorded as "Vaishyas" and "Vaniya Kula Kshatriyas" respectively, and not as "Shudras." Many such claims were made in 1931 census. The "Sabhas" also altered the styles of life of their castes in the direction of Sanskritisation. This included the giving up of forbidden meat [pork and carrion beef] and liquor, and the donning of the sacred thread, the shortening of the mourning period like that of the Brahmins. In the case of very "low castes" it included .non-performance of a traditional degrading duty such as "Carvee" or other free labour or carrying palanquins, or beating the "tom-tom" on ceremonial occasions. The upper caste people were mainly indifferent towards these trends. On some occasions, they used force to make the lower caste people to perform their traditional duties. The caste consciousness created by the census system thus favoured the backward classes movement.

4. Influence of Reform Movements

During the British rule various social reform movements were initiated by the enlightened Indians. Most of these movements aimed at eliminating caste disabilities, promotion of education among women, abolition of sati, upliftment of the depressed and the down-trodden castes such as the Scheduled Castes, and so on. These movements definitely played their role in the beginning of the non-Brahmin movement. At least in the beginning, these movements were generally led by the learned members of the forward castes themselves. These movements created conditions of self-awareness among the deprived sections of the society.

NON-BRAHMIN MOVEMENT AS A TYPE OF BACKWARD CLASSES MOVEMENT

Beginning, Growth and Course of the Non-Brahmin Movement

Sathya Shodhak Samaj and the Non-Brahmin Movement: The First Phase

The foundation for the non-Brahmin movement was laid by the great social reformer of Poona Jyothirao Phule. He was the first to have revolted against the tyranny of caste in general and Brahmanical dominance in particular. He established the "Sathya Shodhaka Samaj" in 1873 which spearheaded the non-Brahmin movement. Phule undertook the social reforms by establishing schools and hostels for the low caste people, etc. in order to elevate the status of the low caste people. He appealed to the non-Brahmin castes and particularly the depressed castes to liberate themselves from mental and religious slavery. He preached against idol worship and superstitions.

Sri Sahu was more interested in getting "communal representation" to the depressed and the downtrodden castes. Thanks mainly to his efforts, special representation through mixed electorals was conceded to the non-Brahmins in the "Montague-Chelmsford Reforms." Due to his efforts certain percentage of posts for non-Brahmins was reserved. Sri Sahu separated judiciary from the executive functions in his home state.

Justice Party and the Non-Brahmin Movement: The Second Phase

The discontentment of the non-Brahmins began to express itself through various efforts to organise the non-Brahmins in the city of Madras. A Vellala medical student by name Natesh Mudaliar established a Dravidian Association Hostel in Madras in June 1916 with the help of non-Brahmins. He also started a joint stock company called "South Indian People's Association Ltd." for the purpose of publishing English, Telugu and Tamil newspapers to express the grievances and problems of the non-Brahmins.

The "Non-Brahmin Manifesto" of the Justice Party : The Justice Party released the "Non-Brahmin Manifesto" in December 1916. It was directed against the Brahmins who had dominated the fields of education, public service and politics. It revealed an extremely high concentration of the Brahmins in all the important positions who constituted only 3% of the total population of the Madras Presidency. The chief leader of Justice Party Movement, Dr. J.M. Nair announced that without a provision for communal representation the reforms would be a failure. He made known to his people through the Manifesto that the Brahmins had secured 94% of the positions in Madras Provincial Civil Service between 1892 and 1904

Justice Party - A Party of Elites and Not Masses ? : It should be noted that though the justice Party claimed to represent the non-Brahmins as a whole, in practice the depressed castes and Muslims were considered separately. As Andre Beteille has pointed out "The Justice Party was in a very real sense an elite party dominated by urban, Western educated, landowning and professional people. It contained a number of Rajas, Zamindars, industrialists, lawyers and doctors. It was by no means a mass party and it is doubtful whether any serious effort was made to draw peasants and workers into the organisation. "

The "Self Respect Movement" or The Dravidian Phase : Leadership of E.V. Ramasami Naicker, The non-Brahmin movement assumed the form of the Self Respect Movement when E.V. Ramasami Naicker became its leader. Ramasami Naicker, a Baliya Naidu had begun his political career with the Congress. But he was unhappy with the way in which the non-Brahmins were treated within the Madras Congress organisation and hence he decided to come out of it. He was also very much annoyed with Gandhiji's support of a purified Varna ideology. He left the Congress Party to start the "Self Respect Movement" [1925].

Call to Reject the Brahmanical Culture and Religion : The Self Respect movement aimed at the rejection of the Brahmanical culture and religion. It rejected the caste system and the supremacy of the Brahmins in all respects. It considered the Brahmanical religion and culture as the main instrument of enslaving Tamilians. Naicker as a leader of this movement publicly ridiculed the puranas as fairy tales, not only imaginary and irrational but also totally immoral. He carried on an active propaganda in an attempt to rid people of puranic Hinduism. He condemned religious ceremonies which required the priestly services of the Brahmins. In strong words he denounced caste rules, child marriage, enforced widowhood and attacked the Laws of Manu, which he regarded as totally "inhuman." According to Naicker, the Laws of Manu were designed to maintain the supremacy of the Brahmins and to enslave the other caste people to them.

Attempts to Advocate Dravidian Culture : Ramasami Naicker championed a new system of values in which all people could enjoy self respect. By directly attacking the Brahmins and making fun of their religious culture he sought to obtain the support of a large number of lower caste people. Naicker claimed that the lower classes and the lower sections of the Tamilian society represented the Dravidian culture. He considered Dravidian culture superior to Brahmanical Aryan culture. Formulation of the Dravidian ideology as opposed to Aryan ideology was the very basis of Self Respect Movement.

Anti-Brahmin, Anti-Sanskrit, Anti-Aryan, Anti-North Indian, Anti-Hindi and Anti-God Movement: Ramasami Naicker represented a new type of leader. He did not have English education and was able to speak in Tamil only. Unlike the Justice Party which drew support from middle and upper-middle class Hindus in both Tamil and Telugu areas, the Self Respect movement concentrated almost entirely on Tamil districts and on groups low in the caste hierarchy including the untouchables. He used Tamil as the medium of communication. Tamil newspapers reflected his thoughts which were anti-Brahminical, anti-Aryan, anti-Sanskrit and anti-North Indian. As a result of that the movement got the support of the uneducated, untouchables, the depressed and the exploited sections of the community, women and rural youth. The movement took a violent turn when a copy of the Manu Smrithi was burnt by the supporters of the movement in 1920.

As M.N. Srinivas points out, this movement was explicitly anti-Brahmin. It encouraged non-Brahmins not to call upon Brahmin priests to perform wedding and other rituals. Its followers were required to use the Tamil language for all political and other purposes. These followers were claiming themselves to be Dravidians and members of a sovereign independent state. As M.N. Srinivas writes "the movement was anti-Brahmin, anti-north, anti-Hindi, anti-Sanskrit and finally anti-god. It included an attempt to rid Tamil of long-established Sanskrit words, and to introduce the singing of exclusively Tamil songs at public concerts.”

Agrarian unrest or peasant movements

Agrarian unrest or peasant unrest is not a new phenomenon in India for it has been in existence since a couple of decades. As Bipin Chandra has pointed out peasant movements had been a part of national movement against the British supremacy. Even now the unrest has not subsided in spite of various rural development activities and programmes. The growth of green revolution and the spread of education along with the development of agriculture have only added to the problem. The tribals who have taken to agriculture of late have also started asserting their rights and demanding the government to concede their demands. Since agriculture and land are regarded as state-subjects, the issue of "agrarian unrest" is to be taken up and handled carefully by the state governments. It is a known fact that a number of issues related to the peasantry of our country are not settled and still hold their sway.

Concept of Agrarian Unrest

Rural sociologists have tried to analyse the phenomenon of "agrarian unrest" in their own way. For example, N.G. Ranga uses the expression "struggle of the peasantry" to refer to the agrarian unrest. A.R. Desai also uses the term "peasant struggle" to refer to the agrarian unrest.

Types of Peasant Struggles

Though the peasant struggles were taking place in India for the past 225 years they are not uniform in nature. The Santal insurrection [1855-56] was of one variety whereas the Bardoli Satyagraha [1920] represented another variety. The Naxalbari peasant struggle was actually a violent armed struggle. In the Mopla Rebellion of Malabar [1921] there was the influence of Muslim religious leaders. The Champaran Movement [1917-18] which was led by Gandhiji was absolutely a peaceful non-violent struggle. It is in this manner the peasant struggles in India differ significantly depending upon their purpose, ideology, organisational base, working style, etc.

Kathleen Gough's Classification of Peasant Struggles

Kathleen Gough in one of her articles, has classified peasant agitations or struggles into five important categories, which are mentioned below.

2. Restorative Rebellions.

3. Religious Movements.

4. Social Banditry.

5. Terrorist Vengeance.

6. Mass Insurrections.

Dr. Dhanagare, a renowned Indian sociologist has added the 6th variety to this list, which

is mentioned below.

8. Liberal Reformist Movements.

1.Restorative Rebellions

These types of struggles though appeared to be intending to drive away the British from the Indian soil, their basic purpose was different. They virtually had the intention of re-establishing monarchy or kingship and the associated social system. Agitations of this type usually consist of an attempt on the part of the agitators to fight for the restoration of the one time existed privileges, statuses, etc. They were very rarely initiated to fight against the foreign domination. Example: Santal Insurrection. The Santals fought against the British not very much for driving them away from India, but for restoring their traditional rights. According to Kathleen Gough, as many as 29 such rebellions took place in India prior to the national freedom struggle of 1857.

2.Religious Movements

Many a times, agitations took place in India with the guidance and sometimes with the active leadership of religious leaders. People joined these agitations with the belief that there would be the re-establishment of "Rama Rajya", wherein social equality, justice and brotherhood would be assured for all. Example: The Mopla Muslims of Malabar, for example, revolted against the Hindi: landlords and also the British, from 1836 to 1921 at least 50 times under the leadership of Thangal a local Muslim religious leader.

3.Social Banditry

"Social Banditry" represents a type of social oriented robberies in which the leaders plunder and loot the property of the rich and later on claim to distribute it among the poor. Example, the banditry led by Narasimha Reddy of Karnool in Andhra Pradesh; the dacoity carried on by a few of the Kollar Community in Madras; the Sanyasi-Fakir banditry that took place in Bengal - can be mentioned here as examples.

4.Terrorist Vengeance

Agitations or struggles in which the agitators make a frontal attack on the opponents who are regarded as their enemies, belong to this category. Capturing the people who are dubbed as enemies, torturing and tyrannising and finally killing them, and such other violent activities are common here. Agitations of this kind are different from that of other categories for there is a scope for violence and armed revolt. Examples: Naxalite agitations and agitations conducted by the Marxist extremists known as "People's War Group", etc.

Causes of Agrarian Unrest or Peasant Struggles

Agrarian unrest is not an unfamiliar thing in India. In a traditional society like India, peasant struggles have been taking place for the past 225 years. In spite of the expressed views of Barrington Moore and others - that Indian peasants are basically traditionalists, and god-fearing people who are tied down tightly to the caste system and hence cannot float any type of peasant struggles - these struggles have taken place. As Kathleen Gough has pointed out, upto 1912, as many as 77 major peasant revolts had taken place out of which 34 revolts were initiated by the different Hindu castes themselves. S.R. Maheshwari too has expressed the opinion that after Independence, particularly after 1960s, large number of peasant struggles took place and about 65% of them were found to be violent. These struggles clearly reveal that our rural development programmes and activities have failed to bring about peace and harmony in the rural areas. Hence it is necessary to find out an explanation for the serious issue of increasing instances of agrarian unrest in peasant struggles after Independence. Agrarian unrest was there even during the Mughal period and afterwards during the British rule. Even after Independence they have been alive and are taking new dimensions. Number of factors have contributed to this unrest among which the following may be noted.

1.Feeling of Relative Deprivation : During the British rale, zamindars, jahgirdars, inamdars, and higher level government officials and the rich in general enjoyed several facilities and privileges. The common people, including the ordinary peasants, were deprived of such privileges. The feeling of relative deprivation made these peasants agitated and disillusioned.

2.Foreign Invasion, Atrocities and Exploitation : Prior to our independence, foreign invasions, atrocities and exploitation of different kinds had instigated our people to fight against such things. The spirit of patriotism was also there in these struggles. The peasants too had joined hands with other people to fight against the British officials, their agents and their henchmen.

3.Destruction of Cottage Industries of the Farmers : The industrial system of economy and the factory system of production, introduced by the British, led to the destruction of cottage and home industries of our farmers. Many of the handicrafts, home industries, in which children, women, and even old people could take part, had to be stopped because of the unfavourable import and export policy of the British.

4.Exploitation of the Tribals : The tribals, who were leading a peaceful life in the midst of forests and mountainous regions, were not only disturbed but were even exploited by the British. The Munda, Oraon, Chauri, Ho, Kola, Tamara of the Bihar region; the Koli and the Varli of Maharashtra; Khasi, Dafla, Lusha, Kukinaga of Assam; Khoya, Palegara, Gondakolan of Andhra Pradesh; Bhil and Nayika of Gujarat; Juvanga and Khonda of Orissa; Dhundia of Karnataka; and many other agricultural tribal communities, which were exploited by the British, had revolted against the British.

CONCLUSION:

It is clear from the above description that the farmers' unrest or agrarian unrest in India has been caused by various factors. The various economic and political developments that have taken place at the national and international levels, especially during 1990s, have caused new anxieties, fears and threats for the farming community. The economic processes of liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation have only added to the helplessness of the farmers. Indian farmers at the beginning of the 21st century, are faced with the toughest challenges. They are not able to compete with their counterparts in the West and also in the developed nations and are thereby suffering a great deal. They have demanded the Governments to fix the minimum prices for their produces. For example, farmers of Karnataka have demanded the Government recently to fix the minimum price for their produces, such as, arecanut, coffee, rubber, copra, etc. A large number of the Indian farmers who depend only on agriculture are now finding themselves in a very difficult situation. In this context, it seems that farmers' agitations are bound to aggravate.

NAXALBARI MOVEMENT -

A Violent Peasant Agitation

The Naxalbaripeasant struggle /agitation was launched in March - April 1967 in a place called Naxalbari that belongs to Darjeeling district of West Bengal. The Naxalbari region, all of a sudden attracted the attention of the world in 1967 by giving rise to the Naxalite Armed Struggle. This Naxalbari revolt spread to almost 82 square mile area in a record speed. Various tribals, such as Santals, Oraons, Mundas, etc. numbering around 42,000 had taken part in this agitation. These tribals, who were residing in forests, tea plantations, and agricultural lands, were made to go out of the land in which they were living, and pay heavy interests for the loans that they had borrowed from the money-lenders. Conflicts were going on regularly between the forest officials on the one hand, and the tribals on the other. The entire peasant community in this Himalayan region, spread over more than 60 villages of the Darjeeling district, was totally agitated. Their dissatisfaction and frustration culminated in the Naxalbari Agitation of 1967.

Causes for the Naxalbari Agitation

Various political, economic, and other factors have contributed to the Naxalbari agitation. A brief explanation of these factors is given below:

1. Economic Dissatisfaction : Economic dissatisfaction is said to be the primary cause of this agitation. The tribals of this region were comparatively poorer in relation to the farmers in other areas. Even though, their population was increasing, they were not able to feed the growing population due to the poor productivity.

2. Demand for Reasonable Distribution of Benami Lands : Another cause that led to this movement was the demand for the regulation and distribution of benami lands in an appropriate way. The zamindars, landlords and money-lenders had forcibly acquired the lands of the tribals and poor farmers, who had taken heavy loan, but failed to repay the same. These people had transferred the ownership rights of these acquired lands into the names of some anonymous people. The leaders of the agitation wanted the proper redistribution of these lands.

3. Nationalisation of the Forests : When the State Government started nationalising the forests, tribals of this region were deprived of their right over forests and to collect and enjoy forest products. It beca^.j ai offence to cut the wooden logs and collect forest products without the permission of the Government. Tribals who were resorting to shifting cultivation had to stop it. In a way, the tribals had become refugees and parasites in their own original homeland.

4. Partiality of the Judiciary : The judiciary of this region was charged of being partial towards the landlords and money-lenders. The poor farmers and tribals, known as the praja, felt that they would never get justice at the hands of the judiciary.

CONCLUSION

Though the Naxalbari episode came to an end by July 13th, 1967, naxalites as such have been carrying on their struggles in different places of the country. For example, in Srikakulam of Andhra Pradesh [1970], Midnapur and Purulia of West Bengal [1969], Kerala [1968], Muzafferpur, Dharbhang, Singhbhum of Bihar [1968-69], Lakhinpur-Khed forest areas of U.P., Golpara, Kamaroop, Nadia, Virbhum of Assam and in other places the naxalites had staged their armed revolts at different times. In course of time, the naxalite struggles spread to urban areas also. The naxalite struggles are still going on here and there, wherever the extremist - leftist communists are powerful. But today, they rarely remain as agrarian struggles.

BIBLIOGRAHY

· Sociology – UMA SHANKAR SINGH, Allahabad law Agency, 2^nd edition, 2008.

· Social Movements in India - GHANSHYAM SHAH, Allahabad law Agency, 1st^nd edition, 2010.

· M.N.Srinivas – Social Change in Modern India.

· S.C. RayaChoudhary – Social Cultural and Economic History of India. (Earliest

· Times to Present Times)

· M.N.Srinivas – Social Change in Modern India.

· Bipin Chandra – Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism.

· K.N. Panikar – Culture and Ideology in Colonial India.

· Kenneth Jones – Social and Religious Reform Movement in India.

· V.A. Narayan – Social Reforms in Modern India.

WEBSITE REFFERED

1. http://www.euromovements.info/yearbook/index.php Wiki on Social Movements across Europe 20/3/2010 12:34pm

2. http://www.alternatives.ca/eng/our-organisation/archives-428/in-depth/world-social-forum-2004/article/social-movements-in-india20/3/2010 12:40pm

3. http://www.social movement in india/ tradechakra.com. 21/3/2010 3:40pm

Received on 18.11.2011

Revised on 24.12.2011

Accepted on 25.02.2012